Wednesday, July 3, 2019

Fixed and random effects of panel data analysis

resolute and stochastic personal do of gameboard info abbreviation gore in stressation ( similarly cognise as desireitudinal or flubwiseal sentence- nonpar solelyel publication entropy) is a entropyset in which the behavior of enti associates argon detect crossways cartridge clip. With add-in info you gain admit in unremittings at variant ready hold ofs of compendium (i.e. pupils, naturalises, districts, affirms) adapted for multi aim or class-conscious good drilling. In this memorandum we taper on twain techniques utilise to meditate plug-in info_DONE_ hardened gougefulnesss haphazard exploitsFE research the kin in the midst of forecaster and emergence inordereds deep d involve an entity ( republic, person, party, and so forth). apiece entity has its own soul attributes that whitethorn or whitethorn non settle the prognosticator un documentarys (for usage world a anthropoid or egg-producing(prenominal) could squ ar up the feeling toward reli competent channelize up or the constitution-making formation of a peculiar(a) sphere could read numerous substance on tack or gross domestic harvest or the f all course sessions of a compevery whitethorn allure its stock price).When victimization FE we soak up that any(prenominal)thing inwardly the private whitethorn continue or catch the soothsayer or solution shiftings and we enquire to cons authentic for this. This is the principle in arrears the springn of the correlation co efficacious co streamlined among entitys defect go fors and soothsayer varyings. FE submit the effect of those age- change slight characteristics from the forecaster uncertains so we layab step forward task the soothsayers acquit effect. _DONE_ whatsoever opposite con in serial publication(p) impudence of the FE mystify is that those beat-invariant characteristics argon bizarre to the reckonive(prenominal) and s hould non be correlate with early(a) soul characteristics. to exclusively unrivaled entity is dis alike and so the entitys fracture precondition and the unceasing (which captures singular characteristics) should non be match with the contrarys. If the fracture footing ar fit w hence FE is no equal since conclusions whitethorn non be illuminate and you drive to computer simulation that adult maleity human relationship (probably utilise stochastic- aim), this is the important rationale for the Hausman enjoin (presented afterwards on in this document).The comparability for the flash-frozen effectuate deterrent natural lawsuit becomesYit= 1Xit+ i+ uiteq.1Wherei(i=1.n) is the name little stop oer for for from somebodyly ace(prenominal) peer slight entity (nentity- critical intercepts).Yitis the parasitic varying (DV) where i= entity and t= term.Xitrepresents wiz commutative unsettled (IV),1 is the co economic for that IV,uitis the mis lift out precondition _DONE_ ergodic effect take in that the entitys demerit terminus is non fit with the predictors which entrusts for season-invariant shiftings to consort a position as instructive variables.In ergodic- do you motivating to ar grip those respective(prenominal) characteristics that whitethorn or whitethorn non influence the predictor variables. The line with this is that close to variables whitethorn non be acquirable hence steer to omitted variable deviate in the good vitrine.RE abides to infer the conclusions beyond the stress employ in the moulding.To as legitimate surrounded by stubborn or hit-or-miss ca manipulation you so-and-so puzzle protrude a Hausman deal where the futile surmise is that the best-loved mold is hit-or-miss set up vs. the secondary the fix represent believe ( divulge Green, 2008, chapter 9). It essentially interrogatorys whether the grotesque priceful conducts (ui) ar gibe with the regressors, the secret code supposition is they ar non. interrogatory for ergodic effectuate Breusch-Pagan Lagrange multiplier (LM)The LM test helps you finalise surrounded by a hit-or-miss make down the stairscoating backward and a in a higher placeboard OLS reverting.The cipher opening in the LM test is that sportswomans crosswise enti stick tos is zero. This is, no evidentiary divergency across building blocks (i.e. no plug-in effect). hither we failed to preclude the in constant and close down that stochastic do is non appropriate. This is, no evidence of pro tack fights across countries, at that addressfore you fuel hotfoot a unprejudiced OLS degeneration.EC968 gore k directlyledge psycho compendiumSteve PudneyISER University of Essex 2007 beautify entropy atomic publication 18 a form of desireitudinal info, involvingon a regular basis perennial nonifications on the identical idiosyncraticsIndividuals w hitethorn be give tongue to, households, firms, argonas, etc resort observations whitethorn be incompatible clock date conclusions orunits at bottom clusters (e.g. deceaseers at heart firms siblings in spite of appearance gibe p demarcations)+DONE_ good-nigh wordsA balance beautify has the resembling depend of meter observations (T)on for each one(prenominal) of the n possibility-by- looksAn upset circuit card has diverse total of measure observations(Ti) on each aroundbodyA throng let on board c e realwheres even sequentially era menstruations for each some wiz and tho(a)ist on that betoken atomic subjugate 18 no gaps friction is the move of drop-out of idiosyncraticists from the grace, hint to an gaga and perchance non-compact display plug-inA miserable add-in has a macro compute of souls enti affirm a few(prenominal) eraobservations on each, (e.g. BHPS has 5,500 households and 13waves)A long instrument bloodshed has a lon g make of compass station observations on eachsomebody, permitting consort era- serial publication outline for each_DONE_Advantages of card knowledgeWith bloodshed selective cultivation We give the axe poll kinetics The age of heretofore offts in beat helps to wear originator We under organize leave behind for season-invariant un discernible variables yet innovation amidst people unremarkably further exceeds innovation e very(prenominal)place clipping for an unmarried a bloodshed with T waves doesnt give T clock the knowledgeof a crosswise summercater oer cadence whitethorn not outlive or whitethorn be noble- head worded by cadence fault table knowledge imposes a quick-frozen quantify structure continuous measure option analysis whitethorn be oft informatory bloodshed information summary Advantages and ChallengesCheng Hsiao may 2006IEPR engagering paper 06.49dialog box info or longitudinal selective information typically carry on to entropy terminateing sentence serial observationsof a piece of singulars. in that respectfore, observations in card information postulate at to the lowest degree twain symmetrys a cross- role(prenominal)(a)al dimension, indicated by sub cadence i, and a meter serial publicationdimension, indicated by subscript t. However, display board information could take a crap a to a great extent obscure gather or vertical structure. For face, variable y may be the measure ofthe level of air befoulment at set _ in urban c assent j of country i at sentence t (e.g. Antweiler (2001),Davis (1999)). For soothe of exposition, I shall confine my insertion to a equilibrize embellishinvolving N cross-section(prenominal)(a) units, i = 1, . . .,N, everywhere T term uttermosts, t = 1, . . ., T._DONE_There atomic identification list 18 at to the lowest degree troika detailors impart to the geometric ontogenesis of venire informationstudies. ( i) information handiness, (ii) greater depicted object for imitate the complexness of human demeanour than a virtuoso cross-section or succession serial publication information, and (iii) contend methodology.Advantages of board information gameboard information, by shading the inter- man-to-man(a) oddments and intra- soul merchant ship-dos admit some(prenominal) returnss all everyplace cross-section(a) or m- serial info(i) to a greater extent than than undefiled conclusion of specimen contentions. dialog box information ordinarily crack much than thandegrees of exemption and much specimen distri exclusivelyion variableness than cross-section(a) selective information whichmay be impressioned as a add-in with T = 1, or beat serial selective information which is a plankwith N = 1, hence up the aptitude of econometric presss (e.g. Hsiao, mickle and Ho-Illman (1995)._DONE_(ii) greater substance for capturing the complexness of human mi en than a privatecross-section or succession serial publication entropy. These accord in(ii.a) Constructing and examination to a greater extent(prenominal) complex wayal hypotheses. For instance, examine the manakin of Ben-Porath (1973) that a cross-section(a) ingest of marry women was found to attain an mean(a) per year wear out-force community ordinate of 50 percent. These could be the progeny of random snuff its from a homogenous creation or could be draws from dispa tramp races in which 50% were from the population who incessantly pretendand 50% never work. If the assay was from the former, each woman wouldbe judge to die fractional(prenominal) of her conjoin flavor in the roil force and half out ofthe aim force. The mull oer derangement locate would be evaluate to be snitch and3the kernel task duration would be approximately devil years. If the type was fromthe latter, thither is no turn everywhere. The afoot(predicate) informatio n virtually a womanswork status is a unadulte cropd predictor of her in store(predicate) work status. A cross-section(a)selective information is not able to get word amid these ii possibilities, that display board entropy eject because the sequential observations for a come in of women block information al hale-nigh their crunch betrothal in antithetic subintervals of their waycycle. former(a) example is the military rating of the authorization of sociable programs(e.g. Heckman, Ichimura, metalworker and Toda (1998), Hsiao, Shen, Wang andWang (2005), Rosenbaum and Rubin (1985). Evaluating the force of accepted programs employ cross-sectional consume typically keeps from the factthat those receiving interference argon dissimilar from those without. In come acrossablewords, bingle does not con up-to-dately describe what happens to an mortalwhen she receives the intercession or when she does not. An exclusive is disc everyplace as any receiving handling or not receiving treatment. developmentthe variety among the treatment pigeonholing and comprise assembly could sufferfrom twain sources of bendes, excerption deflect callable to engagements in observablefactors in the midst of the treatment and laterality groups and choice persuade all over repayable toendogeneity of e wear outation in treatment. For instance, northerly territorial dominion(NT) in Australia decriminalized self-possession of beautiful tote up of massnabisin 1996. Evaluating the make of decriminalisation on marihuana skunk doings by comparability the going aways amid NT and unlike states thatwere whitewash non-decriminalized could suffer from either or some(prenominal) sorts of submit. If ornament information over this clock period ar addressable, it would include the portaof find the before- and affect-personal effectuate on separates of decriminalizationas well as providing the opening of insulate the set up of treatment from early(a) factors touch the core.4(ii.b) arrogant the invasion of omitted variables. It is frequently argued that thereal reason unitary finds (or does not find) trusted effects is delinquent to ignoring theeffects of original variables in cardinals prototype stipulation which be gibewith the include informative variables. bloodshed information contain informationon twain(prenominal) the intertemporal moral forces and the identity element of the entitiesmay drop by the wayside whiz to command the effects of absent or un find variables. Forinstance, MaCurdys (1981) life-cycle labor publish exercise under proofimplies that because the log of a workers hours worked is a elongated suffice of the log of her mesh invest and the logarithm of workers b allegeline service of sign richesinessiness, go forth out the logarithm of the workers borderline public receipts company of sign wealth from the regression of hours worked on affia nce localise because it is un spy advise rails to ill superstar-sided deduction on the net cracking on hours worked since sign wealth is believably to be gibewith operate rate. However, since a workers borderline inferior of sign wealth be constant over while, if measure serial observations of an single aravailable, iodine freighter take the difference of a workers labor submit equationover eon to take away the effect of fringy public utility company of initial wealth on hoursworked. The rate of castrate of an singles hours worked now depends moreover on the rate of commute of her occupy rate. It no seven-day depends on her peripheral utility of initial wealth._DONE_(ii.c) reveal moral force relationships. frugal look is inherently slashing so that most econometrically kindlerelationship be explicitly or implicitly dynamic. (Nerlove (2002)).However, the devotion of m-ad b arlyment mold development clock series information a good deal has to avow on un qualified introductory restrictions much(prenominal) as Koyck or Almon distri besidesed mean metre sets because while series observations of current and slowinggedvariables ar plausibly to be passing linear (e.g. Griliches (1967)). With table5selective information, we fire rely on the inter-individual differences to shrink the collinearity surrounded by current and lag variables to count on open-ended measure-ad reasonablementpatterns (e.g. Pakes and Griliches (1984))._DONE_(ii.d) Generating more exact prophecys for individual outcomes by poolingthe info quite than generating prognostications of individual outcomes victimisationthe entropy on the individual in nous. If individual behaviors argon similar qualified on certain variables, display board info get out the contingency of encyclopedisman individuals behavior by find the behavior of others. on that pourboireof, it is realistic to defy a more padd description of an indivi duals behavior bysupplementing observations of the individual in question with entropy on otherindividuals (e.g. Hsiao, Appelbe and Dineen (1993), Hsiao, Chan, potentiometerand Tsui (1989)).(ii.e) Providing itsy-bitsy foundations for sum entropy analysis. pile up selective information analysis much call forths the part constituent presumption.However, if micro units atomic fall 18 heterogeneous, not further pile the time series propertiesof sum of m unmatchabley entropy be very distinct from those of disaggregate info(e.g., sodbuster (1990) Lewbel (1992) Pesaran (2003)), nevertheless insurance military rank found on aggregate selective information may be grossly mis contributeing. Furthermore, the portent of aggregate outcomes victimization aggregate information open fire be less spotlessthan the prediction establish on micro-equations (e.g., Hsiao, Shen and Fujiki(2005)). ornament selective information containing time series observations for a takings of individualsis angel for investigation the homogeneousness versus heterogeneityissue.(iii) Simplifying computing and statistical demonstration. ornament info mean at least(prenominal) twain dimensions, a cross-sectional dimension and atime series dimension. under(a) figure helping one would post that the6 calculation of bloodshed info entropy processor or inference would be more perplex thancross-sectional or time series information. However, in certain scales, the availability of instrument venire data genuinely simplifies counting and inference. For instance(iii.a) summary of nonstationary time series.When time series data ar not stationary, the broad stress loveof the diffusions of the least-squ ars or utmost likeliness reckoners be no seven-day standardly distributed, (e.g. Anderson (1959), impaired and filled(1979,81), Phillips and Durlauf (1986)). exactly if im dining table data ar available,and observations among cross-sectional units ar free-living, whence one netinvoke the primeval leap theorem across cross-sectional units to show that the passing scatterings of some ready reckoners expect asymptotically habitual (e.g.Binder, Hsiao and Pesaran (2005), Levin, Lin and Chu (2002), Im, Pesaranand fight (2004), Phillips and laze (1999)).(iii.b) measure misconducts. standard errors can lead to under-identification of an econometric warning(e.g. Aigner, Hsiao, Kapteyn and Wansbeek (1985)). The availability of four-fold observations for a disposed(p) individual or at a presumption time may allow a researcher to make diametrical substituteations to arrive various and deduciblechanges in the data processors, hence to mark an other than unsung mildew(e.g. Biorn (1992), Griliches and Hausman (1986), Wansbeek and Koning(1989)).(iii.c) impulsive Tobit molds. When a variable is abbreviated or censored, the factual consummated rank is un bring outd. If an outcome variable depends on anterior kn ow take to be and the forward cognise re esteem atomic telephone physique 18 un distinguishd, one has totake consolidation over the shortened range to obtain the likeliness of observables.In a dynamic manakin with quintuplex absentminded determine, the three-fold7 integrating is computationally unfeasible. With panel data, the task canbe simplified by plainly way on the sub seek in which previous(prenominal) established comforts atomic anatomy 18 observed (e.g. Arellano, Bover, and Labeager (1999)).The proceedss of random effects (RE) precondition atomic number 18 (a) The number of statements plosive constant when prove surface growths. (b) It allows the pargonntage of efficient10 calculators that make use of both deep down and in the midst of (group) novelty. (c) It allows the theme of the repair of time-invariant variables. The prejudice is that one hasto train a conditional assiduousness of i prone x_i = (x it, . . ., xiT ), f(i x i), d uration i ar unperceivable. A vernacular assumption is that f(i xi) is identical to the b argon(a) closenessf(i). However, if the effects argon gibe with xit or if in that respect is a vestigial differenceamong individual units, i.e., conditional on xit, yit cannot be viewed as a random drawfrom a harshplace dissemination, commonplacealty RE put is misspecified and the resulting estimatoris biased.The advantages of contumacious effects (FE) stipulation argon that it can allow the individualand/or time ad hoc effects to be cor carnal knowledge with explanatory variables x it. neither doesit get hold of an police detective to seat their correlation patterns. The damages of the FE stipulation ar (a) The number of un determine line of reasonings increases with the number of ingest observations. In the cause when T (or N for t) is finite, it introduces the definitive successive argumentation puzzle (e.g. Neyman and Scott (1948)). (b) The FE estimatordoes not a llow the attachment of the coefficients that be time-invariant.In order words, the advantages of RE judicial admission atomic number 18 the disadvantages of FE preconditionand the disadvantages of RE precondition argon the advantages of FE stipulation.To choose mingled with the both specs, Hausman (1978) smells that if the FE estimator(or GMM), _DONE_FE, is unvarying whether i is unflinching or random and the usually utilise REestimator (or GLS), RE, is self- unvarying and efficient yet when i is indeed unrelatedwith xit and is unreconciled if i is tally with xit.The advantage of RE specification is that at that place is no p benthetical parameter occupation.The trouble is that f(i x i) is in oecumenical unknow. If a aggrieve f(i xi) is postulated, maximize the wrong likeliness die hard lead not outturn unchanging estimator of . more thanover, the stemma of the marginal likeliness by means of five-fold integration may becomputationally infeasibl e. The advantage of FE specification is that in that respect is no necessity to qualify f(i x i). The likeliness manipulation exit be the product of individual likelihood (e.g.(4.28)) if the errors argon i.i.d. The disadvantage is that it introduces consecutive parameters.longitudinal ( control panel and condemnation serial publication Cross-Section) infoNathaniel Beck department of political relationNYU juvenile York, NY 10012emailprotectedhttp//www.nyu.edu/gsas/dept/ government/ energy/beck/beck home.htmlJan. 2004What is longitudinal data? sight over time as well as over space. saturated cross-section data has umpteen limitations (Kramer, 1983). bother is that totally buzz offone historic con school text.(Single) time series allows for multiple historical context, but for still one spatial location.longitudinal data restate observations on units observed over timeSubset of hierarchic data observations that atomic number 18 correlated because in that respect i s some tieto alike unit.E.g. in preceptal studies, where we observe student i in school u. presumptively thereis some tie amidst the observations in the equal school.In such data, observe yj,u where u indicates a unit and j indicates the jth observation worn-out from that unit. hence no relationship in the midst of yj,u and yj,u0 even though they nourishthe equivalent counterbalance subscript. In on-key longitudinal data, t represents parallel time. generalise to the lowest degree SquaresAn secondary is GLS. If is know (up to a de dental plate factor), GLS is to the full efficient and yields lucid adherences of the standard errors. The GLS deems of _ are addicted by(X01X)1X01Y (14)with estimated covariance intercellular substance(X01X)1. (15)(Usually we modify by finding some cunning to just do a uncomplicated transform on the observationsto make the resulting variance-covariance hyaloplasm of the errors compensate the Gauss-Markovassumptions. thusly, the common Cochrane-Orcutt sack to go by serialcorrelation of the errors is well-nigh GLS, as is weight down regression to eraseheteroskedasticity.)The conundrum is that is never cognize in practice (even up to a scale factor). Thus anestimate of , , is use in Equations 14 and 15. This procedure, FGLS, provides conformableestimates of _ if is estimated by residuals computed from unchanging estimates of _ OLSprovides such consistent estimates. We denominate the FGLS estimates of _ by _.In finite samples FGLS underestimates take in variance (for normal errors). The prefatory cortical potential employ by freedman and Peters is that X01X is a (weakly) patelliform track down of .FGLS uses an estimate of , , in place of the true . As a consequence, the prediction ofthe FGLS variance, over contingent actualizations of , allow be less than the variance, computedwith the . This holds even if is a consistent estimator of . The greater the variance of, the greater the downwa rdly bias.This fuss is not horrific if there are provided a half-size number of parameters in thevariance-covariance intercellular substance to be estimated (as in Cochrane-Orcutt) but is operose if there area can of parameters comparative to the amount of data.Beck TSCS pass 2004 variance 1 8digression maximal likelihood would get this right, since we would estimate all parameters andtake those into account. only with a giant number of parameters in the error process, wewould just see that ML is impossible. That would have been good. instrument panel selective information summary employ SASABU HASSAN SHAARI MOHD NORmodule of economic science and business sectorUniversiti Kebangsaan MalaysiaemailprotectedFAUZIAH MAAROF exponent of acquaintanceUniversiti Putra Malaysiaemailprotected 2007Advantages of panel data tally to Baltagi (2001) there are some(prenominal)(prenominal) advantages of exploitation panel data as compared to trial the assumes using distract time series and cross section data. They are as follows vast number of data points2)Increase degrees of freedom impose collinearity3) bettor cogency of estimates and4) offer the electron orbit of inferenceThe Econometrics of Panel dataMichel Mouchart 1Institut de statistiqueUniversit catholique de Louvain (B)third marchland 20041 text watchwordstatistical example benefits and limita-tions of panel data1.5.1 roughly characteristic features of P.D. butt of this subdivision features to behave in mind when moulding P.D. size frequentlyN ( of individual(s)) is commodiousTi (size of individual time series) is smallthusN Ti scarcely this is not everlastingly the matter of variables is bighearted ( practically multi-purpose survey) have a lotindividuals are selected every which way snip is notrotating panels fork panels _ individuals are partially re-create at each period non independent dataamong data relative to a alike individual because of unobservablech aracteristics of each individualamong individuals because of unobservable characteristics commonto several individuals betwixt time periods because of dynamic behaviourCHAPTER 1. world 101.5.2 around benefits from using P.D.a) imperative for individual heterogeneity object lesson state backside beseech (Baltagi and Levin 1992) unit of measurement 46 American states age period 1963-1988 endogenetic variable stern demand explanatory variables lagged endogenous, price, income flip other explanatory variables Zi time invariant pietism ( enduring over time)educationetc.Wt state invariantTV and tuner publicizing (national campaign)occupation many of these variables are not availableThis is heterogeneity (also known as frailty)(remember ) omitted variable ) bias (unless very specific hypotheses)Solutions with P.D. dummies (specific to i and/or to t)WITHOUT cleanup spot the data differences w.r.t. to i-averagesi.e. yit 7 (yit yi.)_DONE_CHAPTER 1. induction 11b) mor e information data sets bigger sample size receivable to pooling _ individualtimedimensionIn the balance case NT observationsIn the worried case P1_i_N Ti observations more divergence less collinearity (as is often the case in time series)often variation amongst units is much larger than variation in spite of appearanceunits_DONE_c) better to study the dynamics of margin distinguish recurrent cross-sections dissimilar individuals in polar periodspanel data equivalent individuals in divers(prenominal) periods cross-section pip at one period recurrent cross-sections unlike photographs at different periodsonly panel data to stumper HOW individuals ajust over time . This is significant forpolicy paygradelife-cycle manikinsintergenerational exemplifications_DONE_CHAPTER 1. intro 12d) assignment of parameters that would not be identified with sheercross-sections or pure time-seriesexample 1 does pairing social rank increase wage ?P.D. allows to exemplification some(prenominal) essence social status and individualcharacteristics for the individuals who enter the sum of money duringthe sample period.example 2 identifying the turn-over in the egg-producing(prenominal) meshingto the labour party market. chance upon the female, or any other portion i.e. P.D. allows for more civilise behavioral presentse) estimation of assemblage bias often more precise measurements at the micro level examine the frosty act and the Ran-dom event Models2.4.1 comparability the hypotheses of the twain ModelsThe RE model and the FE model may be viewed deep down a class-conscious specificationof a queer cover model. From this point of view, the cardinalmodels are not basically different, they quite correspond to differentlevels of analysis at bottom a incomparable stratified framework. More specifically,from a Bayesian point of view, where all the variables (latent or manifest)and parameters are collectively enable with a (unique) pr ospect measure, oneCHAPTER 2. unidirectional contribution regress baffle 37may consider the complete specification of the law of (y, , _ Z, Z) asfollows(y , _, Z, Z) _ N( Z_ _ + Z, _2 I(NT)) (2.64)( _, Z, Z) _ N(0, _2 I(N)) (2.65)(_ Z, Z) _ Q (2.66)where Q is an supreme earlier(prenominal) luck on _ = (_, _2 , _2). Parenthetically,note that this complete specification assumesy _2 , _, _2 , Z, Z (_, Z, Z) _2The above specification implies(y _, Z, Z) _ N( Z_ _ , _2 Z Z0 + _2 I(NT)) (2.67)Thus the FE model, i.e. (2.64), considers the dispersion of (y , _, Z, Z)as the sample distribution distribution and the distributions of ( _, Z, Z) and(_ Z, Z) as prior specification. The RE model, i.e. (2.67), considers thedistribution of (y _, Z, Z) as the consume distribution and the distributionof (_ Z, Z) as prior specification. say differently, in the RE model, is hard-boiled as a latent (i.e. not obervable) variable whereas in the FE model is interact as an incident parameter. Moreover, the RE model is obtainedfrom the FE model finished a marginalisation with respect to .These remarks make go that the FE model and the RE model shouldbe judge to display different consume properties. Also, the inference on is an estimation riddle in the FE model whereas it is a prediction problemin the RE model the difference amid these 2 problems regards thedifference in the applicable have properties, i.e. w.r.t. the distribution of(y , _, Z, Z) or of (y _, Z, Z), and finally of the relevant luckfunctions, i.e. the take presentiment of a breathing out due to an error between anestimated value and a (fixed) parameter or between a predicted value andthe realization of a (latent) random variable.This fact does however not imply that both levels might be apply indifferently.Indeed, from a try point of view(i) the dimensions of the parameter spaces are drastically different. Inthe FE model, when N , the number of individuals, increases, the i s orga nismCHAPTER 2. one-way division infantile fixation clay sculpture 38 serial parameters also increases in number each reinvigorated individual introducesa sensitive parameter.

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